[AI Library] Chapter 21. United States: DARPA ACE, VENOM, and F-22/F-35 CCA Integration
Chapter 21. United States: DARPA ACE, VENOM, and F-22/F-35 CCA Integration
United States: DARPA ACE, VENOM, F-22·F-35 CCA integration In the summer of 2020, something unbelievable happened at the ‘AlphaDogfight’ competition hosted by the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The artificial intelligence agent won 5-0 against a veteran F-16 instructor from the U.S. Air Force Weapons School. Although it was a virtual battle in a simulator, the resulting shock wave was as heavy as a real bomb. Even as the human pilot instinctively begins to take evasive maneuvers due to his survival instinct, the machine has already pulled the trigger. A difference of 0.1 seconds decided the winner. U.S.
Air Force Secretary Frank Kendall spoke bluntly about the results. “If it takes a human a fraction of a second to do something, AI reacts in microseconds. It’s orders of magnitude. And that difference in time is what really determines victory or defeat.” It was a cold but undeniable reality. But America's ambitions were not satisfied with victory in the simulator. DARPA has begun to take this technology to the real skies through its ‘ACE (Air Combat Evolution)’ program. A specially modified F-16 named X-62A VISTA served as the stage for the experiment.
VISTA stands for 'Variable Flight Simulator Test Aircraft' and is an aircraft modified to allow an AI agent to take the controls of a real fighter jet.
From December 2022 to September 2023, 21 test flights were conducted over Edwards Air Force Base in California. Over 100,000 lines of flight core software were modified, and the results were historic. In September 2023, the X-62A VISTA engaged in a live dogfight with another human-piloted F-16 under the control of an AI agent. In that dance of death, spinning at 1,200 miles per hour, the two fighters were only 2,000 feet apart. Although a safety pilot was on board the aircraft, they never had to press the emergency switch. The machine fought on its own and made its own decisions.
On May 2, 2024, Secretary Kendall personally climbed into the back seat of the X-62A VISTA. In front of him, an AI piloted the fighter jet. The minister later recalled this experience and described it as "a moment comparable to the Wright brothers' flight in 1903 or Chuck Yeager's breakthrough of the sound barrier in 1947." The owner of the sky has begun to change. The point of the ACE program is not simply to prove that “AI is faster than humans.” The real goal is “trust.” In a fighter jet flying at 800 miles per hour, the pilot must be able to trust the AI wingman next to him and have his back.
No matter how right AI chooses, if humans do not understand the choice, cooperation is impossible. ACE is an attempt to implement this “explainable AI” in a combat environment. ‘Project VENOM’ added to this. Venom stands for ‘Viper Experimentation and Next-gen Operations Model’ and is a project to transform active-duty F-16 fighter jets into ‘flying AI laboratories.’ The U.S. Air Force is converting six F-16s into AI test platforms to verify autonomous flight technology under conditions identical to actual combat.
Algorithms that seem perfect in a simulator may perform differently in the face of real-world turbulence, weather changes, and communication delays. Venom is a testing ground to bridge this gap. The destination of all these technologies is CCA (Collaborative Combat Aircraft). The concept is simple. A squadron is formed by attaching one expensive manned stealth fighter, such as the F-22 Raptor or F-35 Lightning II, to two or three AI unmanned fighters that are inexpensive and can be mass-produced. Manned aircraft become 'quarter backs', and unmanned aircraft become 'receivers'.
When it's time to breach enemy air defenses, drones take on the dangerous mission. Become a decoy and consume the enemy's missiles, strike directly, or disrupt the enemy's radar with electronic warfare. Human pilots command from the rear with a view of the entire battlefield.
In April 2024, the U.S. Air Force selected Anduril and General Atomics to develop CCA Phase 1 (Increment 1). In March 2025, these prototypes were given the official names YFQ-44A and YFQ-42A, respectively. 'F' was added. It's an unmanned aerial vehicle, but it's a fighter jet. This alone shows that times have changed. On August 27, 2025, General Atomics' YFQ-42A successfully made its first flight at the California Proving Ground. Just two months later, on October 31, Anduril's YFQ-44A 'Fury' also took to the skies. From contract to first flight took less than two years. Assistant Secretary of the Air Force Troy E.
Maink declared that this achievement "proves that when we remove the barriers and focus on the warfighter, we can deliver warfighting capabilities with speed." The YFQ-42A is an aircraft based on General Atomics' 'Gambit' concept, and is an evolution of the design of the XQ-67A tester. It is equipped with a V-shaped tail, upper engine intake, and internal weapons bay to ensure stealth performance. The three-wheeled landing gear is designed to operate even on unprepared runways. Anduril's YFQ-44A took a different approach. It uses commercial business jet engines and its weapons are mounted on external hardpoints.
It is a choice that prioritizes cost reduction and fast production over stealth performance. Enduril's leadership emphasized, "It is a design that can be produced in a machine shop anywhere in the United States." The price of one CCA is estimated at $20.5 million to $27.5 million. It's about a quarter of the price of an F-35. The U.S. Air Force plans to secure 100 to 150 CCAs in Increment 1 and ultimately more than 1,000 CCAs. When the enemy fires a $100 million missile, the United States throws a $20 million drone. It's a war of economics. In November 2025, General Atomics made a decisive announcement at the Dubai Air Show.
The F-22 Raptor and MQ-20 Avenger were equipped with L3Harris' Panthera software-defined radio equipment and successfully verified their in-flight data link. This was the moment that proved that the manned and unmanned complex network at the heart of the CCA concept works in the real sky. On January 5, 2026, the U.S. Naval Air Warfare Center released a simulation in which F-35 pilots controlled multiple CCAs using touchscreen tablets. In the Joint Simulated Environment (JSE), F-35 pilots responded to complex threats with advanced communications systems and precision-guided missiles. This is no longer a conceptual study.
This is the stage where you establish actual tactical protocols and procedures.
The U.S. Air Force's vision is clear. The speed of the OODA loop (observation-judgment-decision-action) is taken from the limits of the nervous system of a single human being and expanded to the computational power of the entire squadron. The X-62A VISTA was the experimental blade, and CCA is the factory that mass produces and deploys the blade. The era of viewing a single fighter jet as a ‘hero’ is coming to an end. Now it's not the hero, it's the orchestra. Conductors are still human. However, machines are faster at reading sheet music and splitting beats. America has already accepted this uncomfortable truth.
Kim Kyung-jin
Attorney · Former Member of the National Assembly · AI Policy Researcher
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