[AI Library] Chapter 10: The Contest for Malacca
Malaysia and the Malacca Strait: Whoever Controls It Controls the World
Chapter 10: The Contest for Malacca
Kim Kyung-jin
Part 3: The History and Significance of Malacca
The Background and Process of Portuguese Occupation of Malacca
In the late 15th century, Europe was gripped with a desire to pioneer new maritime routes. Portugal actively pursued maritime exploration to gain direct access to the spices of India and Southeast Asia. At that time, Arab merchants controlled the spice trade, and through them, Italian city-states such as Venice and Genoa supplied spices to Europe. Portugal sought to bypass these middlemen and conduct direct trade.
In 1498, Vasco da Gama's arrival in Calicut, India, after rounding the southern tip of Africa, marked a historic turning point. Thereafter, Portugal rapidly expanded its influence in the Indian Ocean. Afonso de Albuquerque, appointed as Portugal's viceroy in India, focused on securing strategic strongholds to establish Portuguese dominance in Asian trade.
Albuquerque recognized precisely the strategic importance of Malacca. He reportedly said, "Whoever controls Malacca controls the noose around the neck of Venice." This meant that by controlling Malacca, one could command the flow of trade between East and West.
In 1509, Portugal defeated the combined fleets of Egypt and Gujarat in the Battle of Diu, thereby establishing maritime dominance in the Indian Ocean. Based on this victory, Albuquerque led an expedition in July 1511, commanding 18 ships and approximately 1,200 troops, to attack Malacca.
At that time, Malacca was ruled by Sultan Mahmud Shah. He resisted the Portuguese expedition, but could not overcome the superior firepower and tactical advantages of the Portuguese forces. After more than a month of fighting, on August 24, Malacca fell into Portuguese hands. Sultan Mahmud Shah fled to Johor, where he subsequently established the Sultanate of Johor.
Portugal built a fortress named 'A Famosa' (meaning 'famous' or 'strong') in Malacca to defend the city. This fortress was constructed using stones from local buildings and became a symbol of Portuguese rule in Malacca. Portugal also established Catholic churches and began missionary activities.
The occupation of Malacca provided Portugal with the opportunity to control the center of Asian trade. However, Portugal's exclusive trade policies caused many Asian merchants, particularly Muslim merchants, to relocate to other ports. As a result, trading activities in Malacca declined compared to the pre-Portuguese occupation period.
The Dutch-Portuguese War
From the late 16th century onward, the Netherlands emerged as a new maritime power. The establishment of the Dutch East India Company (VOC: Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie) in 1602 marked the beginning of the Netherlands' systematic expansion in Asian trade. The VOC sought to break Portuguese trade monopoly and enter the Asian market.
Initially, the Netherlands focused on the Indonesian archipelago and the spice-rich Molucca Islands (Maluku). In 1605, they occupied Ambon, and in 1619, they founded Batavia (present-day Jakarta) on Java as the headquarters of the VOC.
The Netherlands' interest in Malacca stemmed from geopolitical factors. By controlling the Malacca Strait, they could command the flow of Asian trade and weaken their rival Portugal. Moreover, Malacca was located at an important position connecting Batavia and other trading posts in Asia.
The Netherlands pursued alliances with local powers to attack Malacca. The Sultanate of Johor harbored hostile feelings toward Portugal and was willing to cooperate with the Netherlands. In 1636, the Netherlands and Johor concluded a treaty for an attack on Malacca.
In 1640, the Netherlands, with support from the Sultanate of Johor, besieged Malacca. After a five-month siege, on January 14, 1641, the Portuguese garrison in Malacca surrendered. This ended 130 years of Portuguese rule, and Malacca came under Dutch control.
The Dutch occupation of Malacca symbolized the decline of the Portuguese Empire and the strengthening of Dutch dominance in Asian trade. Subsequently, Britain temporarily occupied Malacca in 1795, but it was returned to the Netherlands in 1818.
Among Chinese writings, a work from the Qing Dynasty titled 'Haiwai Soushen Lu' (Records of Gods Overseas) contains detailed accounts of Malacca's trading conditions at that time. The author Chen Lunxiang wrote: 'After the Hongmao (Red-haired, meaning Dutch) took control of Malacca, they granted greater freedom to Chinese merchants, and as a result, many Chinese migrated to Malacca.' Furthermore, the record stating 'The Hongmao favor silver, and highly value Chinese ceramics and silk' illustrates the trading relationship between the Netherlands and China at that time.
The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 and Malacca's Fate
From the late 18th century onward, Britain began to expand its influence in Southeast Asia. In 1786, Francis Light of the British East India Company obtained Penang Island from Sultan Abdullah and named it 'Prince of Wales Island.' Penang became Britain's first Straits Settlement.
During the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815), Britain temporarily seized the overseas colonies of the Netherlands. Malacca was under British control from 1795 to 1818 (with the exception of 1818-1824). After the war, Britain returned most colonies to the Netherlands, but competition between the two great powers for influence in Southeast Asia continued.
In 1819, Thomas Stamford Raffles obtained Singapore Island from the Sultan of Johor and established a British trading base. Singapore's strategic location and free trade policy rapidly developed the small island into an important port.
The fate of Malacca was determined by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. This treaty formalized the division of influence in Southeast Asia between the two European great powers. The main provisions were as follows:
The Netherlands ceded Malacca and all its colonies on the Indian mainland to Britain.
Britain ceded Bencoolen in Sumatra and other colonies in the Indonesian archipelago to the Netherlands.
The Netherlands renounced all claims to Singapore.
Britain renounced all claims to Sumatra.
Through this arrangement, the Malay Peninsula became within the British sphere of influence, while the Indonesian archipelago became within the Dutch sphere.
Through this treaty, Malacca became part of the British Straits Settlements and, along with Penang and Singapore, became an important component of Britain's system of Southeast Asian colonies. However, due to Singapore's rapid development, the relative importance of Malacca declined.
In the early 19th century, Isabella Bird, a British traveler and renowned author, journeyed through several regions of Southeast Asia and recorded the landscapes and impressions she directly experienced, as well as history and culture. In her travel journal titled 'The Golden Chersonese and the Way Thither,' published in 1883, there appears a vivid description of Malacca, a historic city located in present-day Malaysia.
Isabella Bird recorded the appearance of Malacca at that time in the following terms:
"The glory of the past has faded, yet still the city retains attractive traces of history."
This brief sentence encapsulates the history of Malacca and the impression of the city she felt at that time. In other words, it once was a prosperous and magnificent trading port and strategic stronghold, but by the time of her visit, a considerable portion of its past grandeur and vitality had already disappeared, leaving only traces of the past. However, rather than portraying Malacca as a place of decline or unattractive character, Isabella Bird instead emphasizes the historical value and unique beauty of the city. The phrase 'attractive traces of history' in her expression suggests that although its era of prosperity had passed, the city still possessed abundant cultural and historical heritage, and through it could offer visitors a special emotional experience.
She recorded being deeply impressed by Malacca's distinctive urban landscape. This landscape is distinctive because Malacca, having undergone colonial rule by three European powers in succession throughout history (Portugal, the Netherlands, and Britain), each left architectural characteristics that combined harmoniously in one place. The distinct architectural styles of different cultures and eras existing together in Malacca's urban landscape clearly illustrate the uniqueness and special quality she felt during her travels. In other words, the city of Malacca was not merely an old remnant symbolizing past glory, but rather formed a distinctive landscape like a 'living museum' with different cultures and histories intricately interwoven and fused. Even today, Malacca has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site based on this historical background and maintains its reputation as a historic city. Isabella Bird's account not only conveys the landscape of Malacca in detail but also continues to greatly assist contemporary travelers in understanding and appreciating the charm of Malacca.
Changes in Malacca's Status During the Imperial Age
Under British rule, Malacca no longer maintained its status as a major trading center. Singapore rose to prominence as the center of British Southeast Asian trade, and Penang also developed into an important port. Malacca remained a secondary port, relying mainly on regional trade.
However, Malacca developed into a unique city where diverse cultures merged. Portuguese, Dutch, and British colonial rule each left cultural and architectural legacies in the city. Additionally, various Asian cultures including Malay, Chinese, Indian, and Arab coexisted.
Noteworthy is the development of Peranakan or Baba-Nyonya culture. This arose from cultural mixing between Chinese immigrant communities and the indigenous Malay population, developing a distinctive architecture, cuisine, language, and clothing style. Peranakan merchants played an important role in Malacca's economy, and their ornate mansions have become major tourist attractions in present-day Malacca.
During the British colonial period, Malacca was administered as part of the Straits Settlements. In 1867, the Straits Settlements came under direct control of the British government, separating from the British East India Company. After the Pangkor Treaty of 1874, Britain expanded its influence to other regions of the Malay Peninsula, which ultimately led to the formation of the Federated Malay States and the Unfederated Malay States.
In the early 20th century, Malacca experienced a degree of economic revival due to the development of rubber and tin industries. However, Malacca during this period was merely a small provincial town compared to its past glory.
From 1942 to 1945 during World War II, Malacca experienced Japanese occupation. The Japanese military referred to the city as 'Shin Malacca' (New Malacca), and during this period, the local population suffered greatly.
After the war, the Malay Peninsula began its path toward independence. The Federation of Malaya achieved independence in 1957, and in 1963, the Federation of Malaysia was formed. With this, Malacca became a state of Malaysia.
Today, Malacca is a historic city retaining traces of the imperial age. In 2008, together with Georgetown (Penang), it was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The historic center of Malacca preserves buildings from various colonial eras and multicultural heritage, which has become an important tourism resource for Malaysia.
Kim Kyung-jin
Attorney · Former Member of the National Assembly · AI Policy Researcher
© 2026 Kim Kyung-jin. All rights reserved.